A review of 22 studies by researchers at Flinders University (an Australian public university in Adelaide) has found that flushing toilets release aerosols containing potentially harmful pathogens — including legionella, influenza, and norovirus — that can reach adult breathing height and remain suspended in the air for at least 20 seconds. Published in the journal Science of the Total Environment, the research found that greater turbulence and higher microbial levels in the bowl increased the volume of particles released, while the effect of closing the lid was found to be unclear, though researchers still recommend it as a precautionary measure. The findings carry particular implications for hospitals and aged care facilities, where immunocompromised individuals face the greatest risk, prompting calls for better building design and lower-turbulence flushing systems.